(. Hermann von Helmholtz; 31 1821, 8 1894, ) : , .
. - . , 1843 , . 1848 . 1849 ʣ, . 1855 , 1858 . 1870 .
1871 . 1888 - .
. (1847) , 1842 , . 1881 , (F = U - TS, U , S , T ).
1842 1852 . . , , , . .
, 1850 , 1851 . . , . . . . .
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. . , 1875 ( .. ).
. . .-. -. 2 (1892). . 3-4.
. . ., 1895.
. . .-.: , 1934.
. , . // . .: , 1956. . 366382.
. . .: , 2002.
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